Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays a pivotal role in neuronal survival, synaptic plasticity, and cognitive resilience during aging. Declining BDNF levels are strongly associated with age-related cognitive impairment and neurodegenerative disorders. Music therapy, a non-invasive intervention, has shown promise in enhancing neuroplasticity and modulating neurochemical signaling. However, the mechanisms linking music therapy to BDNF signaling in the aging brain remain underexplored.

This systematic review aimed to examine the evidence on how music therapy influences BDNF signaling pathways and cognitive functions in older adults. 

Introduction | Background: BDNF and Aging | Mechanisms of Music and Neuroplasticity | Methods | Results | Preclinical Evidence | Clinical & Aging Evidence | Discussion | Limitations of Evidence | Clinical Implications | Conclusions & Future Directions | References

Introduction

Age-related cognitive decline poses an increasing global burden as populations age. Traditional pharmacological interventions show limited efficacy, prompting the exploration of lifestyle-based, non-pharmacological strategies. Music-based interventions (MBIs), including passive listening, active music-making, and rhythm-based therapies, have gained attention for their neurocognitive benefits. One proposed mechanism involves modulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a key regulator of synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, and resilience against neurodegeneration [1][3].

This systematic review aims to evaluate the efficacy of music-based interventions on BDNF signaling in the context of age-related changes, synthesizing evidence on BDNF levels, cognitive outcomes, and potential moderators. By elucidating mechanisms and efficacy, we provide insights for therapeutic applications in aging populations. 

Observational studies supported higher BDNF in lifelong musicians compared to non-musicians. Music-based interventions appear efficacious in enhancing BDNF signaling, potentially slowing age-related cognitive changes, though heterogeneity in intervention types and durations warrants further standardization. High-quality, long-term RCTs are needed to confirm causality and optimize protocols for clinical application.

Introduction

Background: BDNF and Aging

BDNF is a neurotrophin highly expressed in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and striatum. It binds to tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), initiating cascades such as MAPK/ERK, PI3K/AKT, and PLCγ1/PKC pathways that regulate neuronal growth, survival, and long-term potentiation [6]. With aging, both peripheral and central BDNF levels decline, correlating with memory deficits, synaptic dysfunction, and increased vulnerability to Alzheimer's disease [9]. Strategies that enhance BDNF signaling could therefore mitigate age-related neuronal decline.

Mechanisms of Music and Neuroplasticity

Music engages widespread brain regions, including auditory, limbic, and prefrontal circuits. Neuroimaging studies demonstrate that musical training enhances cortical thickness and grey matter volume in regions implicated in cognition [0]. Animal studies reveal that musical stimulation increases hippocampal neurogenesis and upregulates BDNF expression [6]. The hypothesized mechanisms include:

• Neurotrophic modulation: Increased BDNF mRNA and protein in hippocampus and cortex.
• Stress regulation: Reduction in cortisol and inflammatory cytokines, indirectly sustaining BDNF levels.
• Dopaminergic reinforcement: Music-induced reward circuitry activation (ventral striatum) enhances plasticity.
• Multisensory integration: Rhythmic entrainment fosters cross-modal plasticity supporting cognition and motor learning.

Methods

Following PRISMA guidelines, we searched PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science using keywords: "music intervention", "BDNF", "aging", "neuroplasticity", and "cognition". Inclusion criteria were:

• Peer-reviewed studies from 2000–2025
• Preclinical (animal) or clinical (human) studies
• Reported outcomes involving BDNF signaling, biomarkers, or cognitive measures in older adults

Data were extracted for sample characteristics, intervention type, BDNF-related outcomes, and cognitive effects.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies were included if they: (1) involved human participants aged ≥60 years with or without cognitive impairment (excluding severe dementia or acute neurological events); (2) evaluated music-based interventions (receptive or active); (3) measured BDNF levels (serum, plasma, or CSF) pre- and post-intervention; (4) assessed age-related outcomes like cognition, mood, or neuroplasticity; and (5) were RCTs, quasi-experimental, or observational designs. Exclusions: animal studies, case reports, interventions <4 weeks, or those lacking BDNF quantification

Results

Preclinical Evidence

Musical stimulation in rodents increased hippocampal BDNF and TrkB activation, enhancing long-term potentiation and memory performance [6]. In stroke models, music exposure promoted cortical BDNF accumulation and neurorepair, improving motor recovery [5]. These findings suggest that music engages molecular cascades critical for neuroprotection and regeneration.

Clinical & Aging Evidence

Cross-sectional studies indicate musicians show elevated plasma BDNF compared to non-musicians [1]. Neuroimaging studies report structural and functional plasticity after musical practice in older adults, although direct BDNF measures are limited [2]. In older adults with MCI, receptive music therapy improved memory and mood, suggesting indirect BDNF involvement [3]. Meta-analyses confirm cognitive benefits of MBIs, particularly in executive and episodic domains, though biomarker data remain sparse [4]. Ongoing longitudinal studies are explicitly measuring BDNF in aging cohorts undergoing choir-based interventions [7][8].

Discussion

The convergence of preclinical and human evidence supports the hypothesis that music enhances neuroplasticity through BDNF-dependent mechanisms. Animal studies provide mechanistic detail, while clinical work demonstrates cognitive and mood improvements consistent with BDNF-related pathways. However, gaps remain in direct biomarker evidence among aging humans.

Another consideration is the heterogeneity of interventions: active (instrumental training, choir singing) versus receptive (listening). Active participation may yield stronger BDNF-mediated effects due to motor, social, and cognitive engagement [4]. Personalized approaches accounting for age, baseline cognition, and genetic polymorphisms in BDNF (Val66Met) could optimize intervention efficacy.

Limitations of Evidence

Limitations: Heterogeneity in interventions and BDNF assays; few studies measured BDNF isoforms (e.g., pro- vs. mature-BDNF). Most focused on MCI/AD, limiting generalizability to healthy aging. Future research should incorporate neuroimaging to link BDNF changes to brain structure/function and explore personalized music selection.

Current limitations include:

• Few RCTs with direct BDNF measurements in elderly populations.
• Variability in intervention duration, frequency, and modality.
• Peripheral BDNF measures may not reflect central neurotrophic dynamics.
• Potential confounding effects of physical activity and social engagement.

Clinical Implications

MBIs may represent scalable, low-cost adjuncts for promoting cognitive health in aging populations. Integration into rehabilitation (post-stroke), dementia care, and preventive programs could leverage their neurotrophic potential. Monitoring BDNF as a biomarker may also provide objective evidence of efficacy, bridging behavioral outcomes and molecular mechanisms.

Conclusions & Future Directions

Music-based interventions appear to enhance BDNF signaling in preclinical models and improve cognition in aging humans. To validate translational efficacy, future research must include:

• Large-scale, multi-site RCTs with standardized MBI protocols.
• Simultaneous cognitive, neuroimaging, and biomarker assessments.
• Investigation of dose-response relationships in music exposure.
• Genetic and epigenetic moderators of BDNF response to music.

Such studies will clarify whether MBIs can serve as effective interventions to delay or mitigate age-associated cognitive decline. Music therapy may positively modulate BDNF signaling in the aging brain, supporting neuroplasticity and cognitive health.

While preliminary results are promising, heterogeneity in study design, intervention protocols, and biomarker assessment warrants further large-scale randomized controlled trials. Music-based interventions hold potential as cost-effective, accessible strategies for promoting healthy cognitive aging.

References

1. Y. Xie et al., “Musical practice and BDNF plasma levels as a potential marker of synaptic plasticity in aging,” Front. Neurosci., vol. 15, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8043880/
2. S. Altenmüller et al., “Music-making interventions in older adults: A systematic review of neuroplastic effects,” Neurobiol. Aging, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11965234/
3. X. Xue et al., “Receptive music therapy in mild cognitive impairment and depression: A randomized controlled trial,” Sci. Rep., vol. 13, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-49162-6
4. Y. Abe et al., “Music-based interventions improve cognition in MCI and dementia: A meta-analysis,” Healthcare (Basel), vol. 10, no. 8, p. 1462, 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/10/8/1462
5. Z.-L. Zhang et al., “Music with different tones affects hippocampal BDNF and neuronal development,” Int. J. Mol. Sci., vol. 24, no. 9, p. 8119, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/9/8119
6. R. Särkämö et al., “Music therapy enhances motor recovery and BDNF expression in stroke models,” Front. Neurol., vol. 12, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fneur.2021.666311
7. “The MultiMusic multidomain intervention including choral practice in aging: study protocol,” medRxiv, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.11.29.24318152v2
8.  “A study protocol for BDNF biomarker assessment in music-based aging interventions,” medRxiv, 2024. [Online]. Available: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.11.29.24318152v1
9. C. Angelucci et al., “BDNF and aging: Molecular mechanisms of decline,” Mech. Ageing Dev., vol. 134, no. 10, pp. 489–497, 2013.
1. Ray, Amit. "Brain Fluid Dynamics of CSF, ISF, and CBF: A Computational Model." Compassionate AI, 4.11 (2024): 87-89. https://amitray.com/brain-fluid-dynamics-of-csf-isf-and-cbf-a-computational-model/.
2. Ray, Amit. "Musical Neurodynamics and Neuroplasticity: Mathematical Modeling." Compassionate AI, 2.5 (2025): 12-14. https://amitray.com/musical-neurodynamics-and-neuroplasticity/.
3. Ray, Amit. "Neurodynamics of Indian Classical Music and The Ray 28 Brain Chakras." Compassionate AI, 2.6 (2025): 30-32. https://amitray.com/neurodynamics-indian-classical-music-ray-28-brain-chakras/.
4. Ray, Amit. "Neuroscience of Indian Classical Music: Raga, Tala, and Swara." Compassionate AI, 3.7 (2025): 75-77. https://amitray.com/neuroscience-indian-classical-music-raga-tala-swara/.
5. Ray, Amit. "Music Therapy and BDNF Signaling in Aging Brain: A Systematic Review." Compassionate AI, 3.8 (2025): 84-86. https://amitray.com/music-therapy-and-bdnf-signaling-in-aging-brain-a-systematic-review/.

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Indian Classical Music

Indian classical music (ICM), encompassing Hindustani and Carnatic traditions, is a profound cultural and artistic system rooted in ancient Vedic practices [1]. Its compositional structure, notably the Pallavi–Anupallavi–Charanam framework in Carnatic music, organizes melodic and rhythmic elements into a dynamic progression that captivates listeners and performers alike. Unlike Western musical forms, ICM emphasizes improvisation within a raga (melodic framework) and tala (rhythmic cycle), creating a rich auditory experience that engages both cognitive and emotional faculties.

Recent advances in neuroscience have highlighted music's capacity to modulate brain activity, influencing auditory processing, memory, and emotional regulation [1, 2]. ICM, with its repetitive yet evolving formulaic patterns, offers a unique lens to study neurodynamics—the temporal and spatial patterns of neural activity that underpin cognitive and emotional processing [2].

The practice of chanting, integral to ICM's spiritual roots, aligns with the Sri Amit Ray's 28 Brain Chakras framework, which conceptualizes 28 or 114 specialized neural energy centers beyond the traditional seven chakras, influencing neural and energetic systems through vibrational resonance [3].

Additionally, computational models of brain fluid dynamics, such as those involving cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), interstitial fluid (ISF), and cerebral blood flow (CBF), provide a novel perspective on how ICM might influence brain homeostasis and neuroplasticity [4].

This article investigates how ICM's structural components, formula patterns, chanting practices, and their potential interaction with brain fluid dynamics affect auditory processing and neural oscillatory networks, proposing a model for their therapeutic potential.

The Pallavi–Anupallavi–Charanam Structure

The Pallavi–Anupallavi–Charanam structure is a hallmark of Carnatic music's kriti form, a compositional genre that balances thematic consistency with improvisational freedom. The Pallavi introduces the main melodic theme, often repeated to establish familiarity. The Anupallavi, a secondary section, provides contrast by exploring higher pitch ranges or alternative raga phrases, enriching the composition's emotional depth. The Charanam, typically the longest section, elaborates on the thematic material with intricate rhythmic and melodic variations, often concluding with a return to the Pallavi.

This tripartite structure mirrors cognitive processes such as encoding, elaboration, and consolidation. The Pallavi's repetition primes auditory memory, the Anupallavi challenges attentional networks with novel stimuli, and the Charanam's complexity engages higher-order cognitive functions like pattern recognition and emotional integration [1]. Neuroimaging studies suggest that such structured auditory stimuli activate the auditory cortex, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex, fostering cross-regional synchronization.

🎼 Pallavi – The Root Mantra

The Pallavi is the central refrain—the melodic and lyrical theme that repeats throughout the piece. It encapsulates the core emotional or devotional message, serving as an anchor for the entire composition.

• • Neurodynamic role: Anchors attention; repeated exposure strengthens memory and learning (via hippocampal circuits).
  • Activates the default mode network (DMN) during passive listening and helps establish emotional familiarity.
  • Functions like a musical mantra, reinforcing neural patterns through repetition [1]. 
  • Brain wave alignment: Aligns with Alpha (8–12 Hz) and Theta (4–8 Hz) waves, initiating calm focus (Alpha) while supporting memory consolidation and emotional familiarity (Theta) [2].

🎶 Anupallavi – The Emotional Lift

Following the Pallavi, the Anupallavi provides contrast, expansion, or elevation. Musically, it often climbs to a higher pitch or explores a different register of the rāga.

• Neurodynamic role: Triggers the limbic system, modulating emotional arousal.
• Offers novelty and surprise, increasing dopamine release and cognitive engagement.
• Enhances cross-hemispheric communication, especially in trained musicians [1].
• Brain wave alignment: Evokes Beta (12–30 Hz) waves, not allowing to sleep, for cognitive engagement and Theta (4–8 Hz) waves for emotional arousal, building emotional and cognitive engagement [2].

🎵 Charanam – The Narrative and Integration

The Charanam is the storytelling section, often more elaborate, and includes philosophical or devotional verses. It brings depth and diversity while always returning to the Pallavi.

• Neurodynamic role: Stimulates executive networks, including the prefrontal cortex, as listeners process complex verses.
• Invites emotional synthesis and empathic imagination, activating the insula and temporal lobes.
• Provides a conclusive loop that allows the brain to rest in pattern recognition and closure [1].
• Brain wave alignment: Primarily resonates with Gamma (30–100 Hz) waves, enabling insight and aesthetic bliss, with Theta (4–8 Hz) waves contributing to deep absorption and emotional synthesis [2].

Formula Patterns in ICM

The Pallavi–Anupallavi–Charanam structure is governed by formulaic patterns that provide a scaffold for both composition and improvisation. These patterns include specific melodic motifs (sangatis), rhythmic cycles (talas), and gamaka (ornamentation) techniques that define a raga's emotional and structural identity.

For instance, sangatis in the Pallavi involve iterative variations of a melodic phrase, each subtly altered to enhance expressivity, which aligns with neural mechanisms of predictive coding [1]. The Anupallavi often introduces a complementary melodic contour, adhering to the raga's ascending ($arohana$) and descending ($avarohana$) scales, which may modulate emotional arousal through pitch transitions. The Charanam integrates these elements with complex tala subdivisions, such as tisra (three-beat) or chatusra (four-beat) nadais, engaging temporal processing networks.

These formulaic patterns are not rigid but allow for improvisation within constraints, a feature that distinguishes ICM from other musical traditions.

The Pallavi aligns with Alpha waves, initiating calm focus and setting the theme. The Anupallavi evokes Beta or Theta waves, building emotional and cognitive engagement. The Charanam resonates with Theta or Gamma waves, enabling deep absorption, insight, and aesthetic bliss.

This hierarchical structure may resonate with neural oscillatory hierarchies, where low-frequency oscillations (e.g., $\delta$, $\theta$) modulate higher-frequency $\gamma$ activity, facilitating cognitive integration [2].

$$ \text{Neural Oscillation Hierarchy: } \delta(0.5-4 \, \text{Hz}) \rightarrow \theta(4-8 \, \text{Hz}) \rightarrow \gamma(30-100 \, \text{Hz}) $$.

🎶 Indian Classical Song Structure

[PALLAVI] ×2

[ANUPALLAVI] ×2

→ Repeat [PALLAVI] ×1

---

[CHARANAM 1] ×1

→ Repeat [PALLAVI] ×1

[CHARANAM 2] ×1

→ Repeat [PALLAVI] ×1

(Optional) [CHARANAM 3] ×1

→ Repeat [PALLAVI] ×1

---

[ENDING / TIHAI] = Last line ×3 (gradual fade)

Relevant Datasets for ICM Neurodynamics

Publicly available datasets can facilitate the study of ICM's neurodynamic effects, particularly in the context of the Pallavi–Anupallavi–Charanam structure. Datasets like those hosted on platforms such as Zenodo or OpenNeuro could support computational modeling of raga and tala structures or provide EEG responses to raga-based stimuli, offering insights into oscillatory patterns during ICM listening. Researchers can integrate these datasets with computational tools, such as gammatone filterbanks, to model auditory cortex responses to ICM's formulaic patterns [1]. These resources enable hypothesis-driven studies on how ICM's structural complexity influences neural synchronization and emotional processing.

Neurodynamics of Auditory Processing in ICM

Auditory processing of ICM involves a cascade of neural events, from primary auditory cortex activation to higher-order integration in association areas [1, 2]. The raga's microtonal variations and tala's rhythmic precision engage the brain's temporal processing networks, particularly the superior temporal gyrus and basal ganglia. EEG studies indicate that ICM listening increases $\alpha$ (8–12 Hz) and $\theta$ (4–8 Hz) band activity, associated with relaxation and focused attention, while also modulating $\gamma$ (30–100 Hz) oscillations linked to cognitive integration [1, 2].

The Pallavi–Anupallavi–Charanam structure imposes a temporal hierarchy that aligns with neural oscillatory dynamics. For instance, the Pallavi's repetitive sangatis may entrain low-frequency $\delta$ and $\theta$ oscillations, facilitating memory consolidation [2]. The Anupallavi's melodic shifts could modulate $\beta$ (12–30 Hz) band activity, reflecting heightened attentional demands. The Charanam's rhythmic complexity, driven by intricate tala patterns, likely engages $\gamma$ oscillations, linked to cognitive integration and emotional processing [2]. This oscillatory entrainment hypothesis, supported by recent neurodynamic models, suggests that ICM acts as a neurocognitive scaffold, synchronizing distributed brain networks [2].

$$ \text{Entrainment Model: } f_{\text{tala}}(t) \propto \sum_{k} A_k \sin(2\pi f_k t + \phi_k), \text{ where } f_k \in \{\delta, \theta, \beta, \gamma\} $$

Brain Fluid Dynamics and ICM: A Computational Perspective

The neurodynamic effects of ICM may extend beyond neural oscillations to influence brain fluid dynamics, including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), interstitial fluid (ISF), and cerebral blood flow (CBF). Computational models suggest that rhythmic auditory stimuli, such as those in ICM, could modulate brain fluid dynamics by altering intracranial pressure and facilitating the clearance of metabolic waste through the glymphatic system [4]. The Sri Amit Ray's 28 Brain Chakras framework posits that vibrational frequencies from music and chanting can resonate with neural energy centers, potentially influencing fluid dynamics in the brain [3]. For instance, the low-frequency oscillations ($\delta$, $\theta$) entrained by the Pallavi's repetition might enhance CSF pulsations, promoting glymphatic flow and supporting neural homeostasis [4].

Ray's computational model of brain fluid dynamics indicates that CBF oscillations, driven by rhythmic stimuli, can enhance oxygen delivery to neural tissues, supporting cognitive and emotional processing during ICM listening [4]. This interplay between auditory stimulation and brain fluid dynamics offers a novel mechanism through which ICM may exert therapeutic effects, such as reducing neuroinflammation and enhancing neuroplasticity [2, 4]. Future studies could integrate neuroimaging with fluid dynamics simulations to explore how ICM's rhythmic patterns influence CSF, ISF, and CBF, providing a holistic understanding of its impact on brain health.

Ancient Formula Chanting and Neural Resonance

Chanting, a cornerstone of ICM's spiritual context, involves repetitive vocalization of mantras or melodic phrases, often aligned with specific ragas and talas [3]. Ancient Vedic texts describe chanting as a means to harmonize body and mind, a concept echoed in modern music therapy [3]. The Sri Amit Ray Brain Chakras framework posits that chanting at specific frequencies activates specialized neural energy centers, influencing neural activity through vibrational resonance [3]. These vibrations may also interact with brain fluid dynamics, potentially enhancing CSF flow and supporting neural health [4].

Neurophysiologically, chanting induces a meditative state, reducing cortisol levels and enhancing parasympathetic activity [3]. EEG studies reveal increased coherence in $\alpha$ and $\theta$ bands during chanting, suggesting enhanced functional connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and limbic system. The rhythmic entrainment of chanting may also modulate the default mode network (DMN), promoting introspection and emotional regulation [2]. In the context of ICM, chanting within the Pallavi–Anupallavi–Charanam structure amplifies these effects, as the music's formulaic patterns sustain engagement while the chant's repetition fosters neural stability.

The Sri Amit Ray 28 Brain Chakras Framework

The Sri Amit Ray Brain Chakras framework integrates ancient Indian philosophy with modern neuroscience, proposing that specific sound frequencies correspond to specialized neural energy centers, distinct from the traditional seven chakras [3]. While the traditional seven chakras (Muladhara, Svadhisthana, Manipura, Anahata, Vishuddha, Ajna, and Sahasrara) are primarily associated with spiritual and energetic functions along the spine, Sri Amit Ray’s model expands to include 28 or 114 brain-specific chakras. These are conceptualized as neural hubs that modulate brain network dynamics, influencing cognitive, emotional, and sensory processing through vibrational frequencies [3]. This framework emphasizes neuroplasticity, suggesting that targeted sound frequencies, such as those in ICM, can rewire neural circuits to enhance cognitive flexibility and emotional resilience [3, 2].

For example, the Anahata (heart) chakra, linked to compassion in both traditional and Ray’s frameworks, may be activated by ragas like Bhimpalasi, known for their emotive qualities [3]. However, Ray’s model associates specific brain regions, such as the anterior cingulate cortex, with these chakras, proposing that their activation enhances functional connectivity [3]. Preliminary studies suggest that music-based interventions targeting specific frequencies can modulate brain activity [2].

For instance, low-frequency sounds (e.g., $100–200$ Hz) associated with the root brain chakra increase $\delta$ band power, promoting relaxation. Higher-frequency sounds (e.g., $400–600$ Hz) linked to the Vishuddha brain chakra may enhance $\beta$ band activity, supporting communication and creativity. These effects may be amplified by improved brain fluid dynamics, as vibrational frequencies could enhance CSF and CBF, supporting neural health [4]. ICM’s microtonal precision and raga-specific emotional profiles offer a natural platform to test these hypotheses, bridging traditional wisdom with scientific inquiry.

Therapeutic Potential and Future Directions

The neurodynamic effects of ICM suggest significant therapeutic potential, particularly for neurological and psychiatric disorders. Music therapy studies indicate that rhythmic auditory stimulation, akin to ICM’s tala, improves motor coordination in stroke patients [3]. The emotional resonance of ragas may alleviate symptoms of anxiety and depression, potentially through limbic system modulation [1]. Chanting-based interventions, aligned with the Sri Amit Ray Brain Chakras framework, could enhance mindfulness and stress resilience, offering a complementary approach to cognitive-behavioral therapy [3, 2]. Additionally, the potential influence of ICM on brain fluid dynamics, such as enhancing glymphatic clearance, may reduce neuroinflammation and support recovery in neurodegenerative conditions [4].

Future research should map the spatiotemporal dynamics of ICM processing, focusing on how formulaic patterns influence neural connectivity. Multimodal neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, EEG) combined with computational models, such as gammatone-based auditory processing frameworks, could simulate ICM’s impact on the auditory cortex [1]. Studies targeting the Sri Amit Ray Brain Chakras could explore how specific frequencies modulate neural hubs [3], while computational models of brain fluid dynamics could elucidate how ICM affects CSF, ISF, and CBF [4]. Cross-cultural studies comparing ICM with other musical traditions would clarify its unique neurocognitive effects. Additionally, randomized controlled trials are needed to evaluate the efficacy of ICM-based interventions, particularly those incorporating Ray’s brain chakra framework and brain fluid dynamics, leveraging recent insights into musical neurodynamics [3, 2, 4].

Conclusion

Indian classical music, with its Pallavi–Anupallavi–Charanam structure and formulaic patterns, offers a rich auditory stimulus that engages complex neurocognitive processes. By integrating ancient chanting practices, the Sri Amit Ray's 28 Brain Chakras framework, which extends beyond the traditional seven chakras to include specialized neural energy centers, and computational models of brain fluid dynamics, this article proposes that ICM modulates auditory processing, emotional regulation, neural oscillatory networks, and brain homeostasis. These insights, supported by recent neurodynamic research, highlight ICM’s potential as a therapeutic tool and underscore the value of interdisciplinary approaches in neuroscience [2, 4]. As we unravel the neurodynamics of this ancient art form, we pave the way for innovative interventions that harmonize mind, body, and spirit.

References

1. Banerjee, A. (2017). Music and its effect on the brain. Journal of Neuroscientific Studies, 12(3), 45–60.
2. Stefanics, G., & Vuust, P. (2025). Musical neurodynamics. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-025-00915-4
3. Ray, A. (2024). Musical neurodynamics and neuroplasticity: Mathematical modeling. Retrieved from https://amitray.com/musical-neurodynamics-and-neuroplasticity/
4. Ray, A. (2024). Brain fluid dynamics of CSF, ISF, and CBF: A computational model. Retrieved from https://amitray.com/brain-fluid-dynamics-of-csf-isf-and-cbf-a-computational-model/
1. Ray, Amit. "Brain Fluid Dynamics of CSF, ISF, and CBF: A Computational Model." Compassionate AI, 4.11 (2024): 87-89. https://amitray.com/brain-fluid-dynamics-of-csf-isf-and-cbf-a-computational-model/.
2. Ray, Amit. "Musical Neurodynamics and Neuroplasticity: Mathematical Modeling." Compassionate AI, 2.5 (2025): 12-14. https://amitray.com/musical-neurodynamics-and-neuroplasticity/.
3. Ray, Amit. "Neurodynamics of Indian Classical Music and The Ray 28 Brain Chakras." Compassionate AI, 2.6 (2025): 30-32. https://amitray.com/neurodynamics-indian-classical-music-ray-28-brain-chakras/.
4. Ray, Amit. "Neuroscience of Indian Classical Music: Raga, Tala, and Swara." Compassionate AI, 3.7 (2025): 75-77. https://amitray.com/neuroscience-indian-classical-music-raga-tala-swara/.
5. Ray, Amit. "Music Therapy and BDNF Signaling in Aging Brain: A Systematic Review." Compassionate AI, 3.8 (2025): 84-86. https://amitray.com/music-therapy-and-bdnf-signaling-in-aging-brain-a-systematic-review/.

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There are two major categories of traditional Samadhi:

1. Samprajnata Samadhi (with cognition): In this state, the mind still operates with a focus on subtle objects like thought, emotions, or abstract ideas. There is awareness, but it is absorbed in deep concentration on finer aspects of reality.
2. Asamprajnata Samadhi (without cognition): Also known as Nirbija Samadhi (seedless), this is a state of complete cessation of thought and perception. It is beyond the mind and ego, resulting in a profound sense of unity and non-dual awareness.

Compassion and Samadhi 

In our Ray 114 Chakras tradition, compassion and Samadhi are deeply interconnected, reflecting a profound synthesis of spiritual practice and inner transformation.

Compassion, as a fundamental aspect of spiritual evolution, aligns with the higher vibrations of the 114 chakras, each representing different facets of the self and the universe. Samadhi, the pinnacle of meditative absorption, facilitates a state where individual consciousness merges with universal consciousness, fostering an expansive sense of empathy and interconnectedness.

In this state, the meditator experiences a boundless compassion that transcends personal limitations, resonating with the pure essence of divine love and cosmic harmony. This synergy between compassion and Samadhi not only enhances personal spiritual growth but also contributes to the collective well-being, manifesting a holistic approach to spiritual enlightenment and human connection.

Neuroscientific Definition of Samadhi

Samadhi is a highly advanced state of neurocognitive integration characterized by profound, sustained neural synchronization and coherence across various brain regions, leading to a unified experience of consciousness. The samadhi state involves a shift from the default mode network's typical activity to a dominant activation of the brain's attentional and sensory processing networks, resulting in an enhanced perception of unity, reduced sense of ego, awakening of a heightened sense of present-moment awareness, and deep compassion. It reflects a profound transformation in neural processing, where the individual experiences a deep sense of inner stillness and integration, transcending ordinary cognitive and emotional states.

Spiritual Definition of Samadhi

Samadhi is the ultimate state of meditative absorption where individual consciousness seamlessly merges with universal consciousness, leading to a profound awakening of total cosmic well-being. It represents the pinnacle of spiritual realization, characterized by a profound sense of oneness and unity with all existence.

In the state of samadhi, the meditator transcends the ego and dualistic perceptions, experiencing an all-encompassing bliss, compassion, creativity, and a deep ineffable peace. Samadhi is marked by the dissolution of personal desires and mental fluctuations, leading to a direct, experiential realization of one's true nature and the divine essence underlying the universal compassion. It is both a profound inner awakening and a complete surrender to the transcendent, unchanging reality.

Types of samadhi in patanjali yoga sutras

In Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, Samadhi is the final stage of meditation and is described in several types. Here’s a list of the key types:

1. Samprajñāta Samadhi:

• Savitarka Samadhi: This is a form of Samadhi where the meditator is focused on a gross object or concept, with active discernment and logical reasoning.
• Savichara Samadhi: This type involves subtle, more refined objects of meditation, where the discernment is more abstract and subtle compared to Savitarka.
• Sananda Samadhi: In this state, the meditator experiences bliss and joy, where the focus is on the pure essence of joy rather than external objects.
• Sasmita Samadhi: This involves the sense of ego or individuality in a refined manner, where the meditator recognizes the self in its purest form.

2. Asamprajñāta Samadhi:

• Nirvikalpa Samadhi: A higher state of Samadhi where there is no differentiation or vikalpa (conceptualization); the meditator experiences pure consciousness without any mental modifications.
• Nirbija Samadhi: The final stage of Asamprajñāta Samadhi, where there is no seed of desire or thought left, leading to complete liberation and transcendence.

These types of Samadhi represent different levels of meditative absorption and realization, ranging from the more conceptual to the most profound state of pure consciousness.

Neuroscience of Samadhi

1. Brainwave Activity in Samadhi

Meditative states associated with Samadhi are reflected in unique brainwave patterns:

• Gamma Waves (30-100 Hz): These are associated with heightened cognitive function, concentration, and a state of “oneness” with the environment. Studies on advanced meditators show increased gamma activity, particularly in regions related to attention and sensory processing. In deep Samadhi, this heightened focus without an object reflects non-dual awareness.
• Theta Waves (4-8 Hz): Associated with deep relaxation, creativity, and meditation, theta waves are prominent in meditative absorption. These waves often dominate when the mind is deeply quiet, introspective, and approaching the stillness that characterizes Samadhi.
• Alpha Waves (8-12 Hz): These waves reflect a relaxed but alert state, often seen in light meditation. Alpha waves dominate early stages of meditation and gradually give way to deeper states as one moves toward Samadhi.

In Samprajnata Samadhi (where awareness of objects or subtle mental content remains), alpha and theta waves may be more prominent, while Asamprajnata Samadhi (where awareness of all content disappears) may exhibit more gamma synchronization, indicating deep integration and unity of awareness.

2. Neuroplasticity and Long-term Brain Changes

Samadhi can induce profound long-term changes in the brain, often referred to as neuroplasticity:

• Increased cortical thickness: Long-term meditators often show greater thickness in areas of the brain responsible for attention, sensory awareness, and emotional regulation, particularly the prefrontal cortex and insular cortex [1].
• Reduction in the size of the amygdala: The amygdala, responsible for fear and stress responses, becomes less active and physically smaller with sustained meditative practice. This reflects a reduced reactivity to stress, fear, and negative emotions—common outcomes in advanced meditative states like Samadhi [2].
• Increased connectivity in the default mode network (DMN): The DMN, which is active during self-referential thoughts and daydreaming, tends to quiet down during deep meditation. In Samadhi, the DMN is significantly suppressed, indicating a reduction in ego-centered activity and an experience of "oneness" or ego dissolution [3].

3. Key Brain Regions Activated in Samadhi

Several brain regions have been found to play a crucial role during Samadhi and advanced meditative states:

• Prefrontal Cortex: This region is associated with higher-order thinking, attention, and self-regulation. During Samadhi, the prefrontal cortex shows increased activation, reflecting heightened concentration, and awareness, which is needed to sustain deep meditative states.
• Parietal Lobe: This region processes sensory input and spatial awareness. Studies on experienced meditators suggest that the parietal lobe becomes less active during deep states like Samadhi, reducing the sense of separation between the self and the external world. This contributes to the feeling of "unity consciousness."
• Insula: Involved in body awareness and interoception (awareness of internal bodily states), the insula is activated during meditation, including Samadhi. This may contribute to the sense of heightened awareness of the body’s energy, breath, and subtle sensations.
• Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC): The ACC is associated with attention control, emotional regulation, and error detection. In Samadhi, the ACC is highly active, reflecting the capacity to maintain prolonged focus without distraction.
• Thalamus: The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information. During Samadhi, thalamic activity is often altered, resulting in the filtering out of unnecessary external sensory input, allowing the practitioner to maintain deep meditative absorption.

4. The Role of Neurotransmitters and Hormones

During states of Samadhi, specific neurotransmitters and hormones play a role in the experience of bliss, focus, and calm:

• Dopamine: Increased levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with reward and pleasure, are observed during meditation. This may explain the feelings of deep contentment and bliss often reported during Samadhi.
• Serotonin: Known for its role in mood regulation, serotonin levels also rise during meditation, contributing to a sense of inner peace and well-being.
• GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): Meditation has been shown to increase GABA levels, a neurotransmitter that reduces neuronal excitability and anxiety. This calming effect may be part of the deep relaxation and tranquility experienced in Samadhi.
• Endorphins: These natural painkillers and mood elevators are often released during meditation, leading to feelings of euphoria and detachment from physical sensations in advanced meditative states.

5. Integration of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

Meditative practices leading to Samadhi involve the balancing of the autonomic nervous system:

• Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): Normally associated with fight-or-flight responses, the SNS becomes less active during deep meditation. Stress levels decrease, as evidenced by lower cortisol levels (a stress hormone).
• Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS): The PNS, responsible for rest and digestion, becomes dominant in Samadhi. This leads to slower heart rate, reduced blood pressure, and a state of deep physiological rest.

6. Cognitive and Emotional Benefits of Samadhi

• Enhanced Emotional Regulation: Meditators who reach Samadhi often experience profound emotional regulation. This is because regions such as the amygdala (fear and stress response center) and the prefrontal cortex (rational decision-making) work in harmony, reducing reactivity to external stimuli.
• Increased Focus and Cognitive Function: The sustained attention required to enter Samadhi results in improved cognitive functions, including memory, attention, and decision-making.
• Reduction of Egoic Thought: With the reduction of activity in the default mode network, egoic thinking diminishes. This allows practitioners to experience a sense of "selflessness," contributing to feelings of unity and interconnectedness.

7. Samadhi as a State of Flow

From a psychological perspective, Samadhi can be compared to the flow state:

• Flow state: A state in which individuals are fully immersed in an activity, with a sense of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment. Samadhi, however, is deeper and more sustained than typical flow states, as it extends beyond engagement with tasks into a state of pure awareness without objectification.

8. Long-term Psychological Effects of Samadhi

The long-term attainment of Samadhi can have profound psychological effects:

• Resilience and Emotional Intelligence: Regular meditation leading to Samadhi increases the brain’s capacity to handle stress, improve emotional intelligence, and develop resilience.
• Bliss and Compassion: Advanced practitioners often report heightened feelings of compassion, joy, and a deep sense of love for all beings. This could be attributed to the combination of neurochemical changes and the silencing of egoic mental activity.

Conclusion: Neuroscience Meets Samadhi

The neuroscience of Samadhi reveals the profound physiological, cognitive, and emotional transformations that occur during advanced meditation. Through altered brainwave patterns, structural changes in the brain, and shifts in neurotransmitter levels, the brain reflects the stillness, clarity, and bliss associated with Samadhi.

These changes not only align with spiritual descriptions but also suggest that Samadhi represents a harmonious state of optimal functioning in the human brain, bridging ancient spiritual wisdom with modern scientific understanding.

References:

1. Ray, Amit. The Science of 114 Chakras in Human Body: A Guidebook. Inner Light Publishers, 2015.
2. Ray, Amit. "Epigenetic Reprogramming for Reversal of Aging and to Increase Life Expectancy." Amit Ray, amitray. com 2.4 (2023): 81-83, https://amitray.com/epigenetic-reprogramming-for-reversal-of-aging/
3. Ray, Amit. "Slow Breathing Yoga Pranayama to Reduce Oxidative Stress." Compassionate AI, 1.3 (2024): 15-17. https://amitray.com/slow-breathing-yoga-pranayam-to-reduce-oxidative-stress/
4. Ray, Amit. “Hormones, Endocrine System, and Your Seven Chakras: Balancing Your Body Mind and Spirit.” Amit Ray, September 27, 2023. https://amitray.com/hormones-endocrine-system-and-your-seven-chakras/. 
5. Ray, Amit. “Neuroscience of Samadhi: Brainwaves, Neuroplasticity, and Deep Meditation.” Amit Ray, September 16, 2024. https://amitray.com/neuroscience-of-samadhi/.
6. Ray, Amit. “Heart Rate Variability with Om Meditation and Chanting.” Amit Ray, August 8, 2024. https://amitray.com/stress-relief-and-heart-rate-variability-with-om-meditation/.
7. Ray, Amit. "Neuroscience of Samadhi: Brainwaves, Neuroplasticity, and Deep Meditation." Compassionate AI, 3.9 (2024): 48-50. https://amitray.com/neuroscience-of-samadhi/

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