In the quiet hours before dawn, when the world is still cloaked in darkness, ancient traditions and modern science converge on a profound phenomenon: the transition from night to day. This period, known in Hindu philosophy as Brahman Muhurta, is revered as a time of heightened spiritual potential, where the mind is clearest and the body most receptive to positive energies. Spanning approximately 1 hour and 36 minutes before sunrise, ending 48 minutes prior, it is often calculated as roughly 3:30 to 5:30 AM, depending on geographical location and season. The term Brahman Muhurta translates to “the time of Brahman,” the creator in Hindu cosmology, symbolizing a phase of renewal and creation.
This article delves into the interplay between the first rays of the sun, the auspicious Brahman Muhurta, and their impacts on human physiology—specifically hormones, neurotransmitters, and dream patterns. Drawing from Vedic texts like the Ashtanga Hridaya and contemporary scientific research, we explore how this pre-dawn window aligns with circadian rhythms, influencing everything from mood regulation to cognitive function. In an era dominated by artificial light and disrupted sleep cycles, understanding these natural processes offers a pathway to enhanced well-being.
Fundamentals | Timings | Beginners Guide | Scientific Perspective | Vedic Scriptures | Pineal Gland | First Ray of the Sun | Benefits | Dream Patterns | Manifestation | Not for Everyone | Mantras
Introduction
Brahma Muhurta, often described as the "time of the Creator," refers to the sacred period roughly 96 minutes before sunrise. Across Vedic scriptures, Ayurveda, yoga, and meditation traditions, this time is praised as the most auspicious for spiritual practice, self-reflection, and inner awakening. The stillness of the environment, the purity of the air, and the harmony of natural rhythms make it a unique window for connecting body, mind, and soul.
Modern science also lends support to this ancient wisdom. Studies on circadian biology, brain chemistry, and neuroplasticity suggest that the pre-dawn hours naturally promote focus, emotional balance, and creativity. For spiritual seekers, Brahma Muhurta is a gateway to higher states of consciousness; for health enthusiasts, it is an opportunity to align with nature’s healing rhythms.
This article explores the meaning, timing, scientific insights, scriptural references, connection with the pineal gland, and the benefits of Brahma Muhurta. It also highlights its role in manifestation through the Reticular Activating System (RAS), while addressing precautions and limitations. By integrating the truths of the modern science and the time-tested truths of deep spirituality, we aim to understand why Brahma Muhurta remains one of the most powerful practices for holistic well-being.
Understanding Brahman Muhurta
Brahman Muhurta, a cornerstone of Ayurvedic and Hindu traditions, is defined as a 48-minute auspicious period beginning 1 hour and 36 minutes before sunrise. This timing varies by location and season but generally falls between 3:30 AM and 5:30 AM, with the peak around 4:00 AM. In Sanskrit, “Brahma” refers to the creator god, and “Muhurta” means a division of time, emphasizing this as the “time of creation” when one can “create oneself” through practices like meditation and yoga.
Brahma Muhurta Timings
Brahma Muhurta, literally meaning “the time of Brahman (pure consciousness)”, is regarded in Ayurveda and Yoga as the most sacred and energetically vibrant period of the day. It is not fixed by the clock but is always calculated with respect to the local time of sunrise.
A single muhurta is equal to 48 minutes, and there are 30 such muhurtas in a day. The Brahma Muhurta is traditionally defined as the second last muhurta before sunrise. This means it begins 1 hour and 36 minutes before sunrise and lasts for 48 minutes.
If we take 6:00 AM as the sunrise time, then the Brahma Muhurta begins at 4:24 AM and continues until 5:12 AM. During this quiet window, the environment is deeply still, the air is fresh, and the subtle rhythms of nature are in perfect harmony with the human mind and body.
In this period, the mind is naturally calm, alert, and sattvic (pure). The hormonal secretions of the body—especially melatonin and cortisol—create a state of inner balance that makes meditation, chanting, pranayama, or spiritual study highly effective.
By the time dawn approaches (around 5:12 AM to 6:00 AM), the atmosphere gradually transitions into Usha Kala (the dawn period), which is still considered auspicious, but the peak spiritual energy of Brahma Muhurta slowly begins to fade as the world awakens.
Thus, when sunrise is at 6:00 AM:
- Brahma Muhurta → 4:24 AM to 5:12 AM
- Usha Kala (dawn) → 5:12 AM to 6:00 AM
This window, just before the first light of day, is seen as a cosmic invitation—an opening of the mind to wisdom, peace, and self-realization.
Brahma Muhurta in the Vedic Scriptures
Historically, Vedic scriptures such as the Ashtanga Hridaya extol this period for perceiving ultimate knowledge, as the mind is unburdened by daily distractions. Yogis and sages rose during this time for spiritual disciplines, believing the atmosphere is charged with prana (life force), facilitating deeper introspection and connection to the divine. It’s considered ideal for mantra recitation, study, and breathwork, as the veil between the physical and spiritual realms thins.
The Atharva Veda and Rig Veda both emphasize the sanctity of the early morning hours, describing them as the time when rays of Ushas (the dawn goddess) awaken the mind and bring clarity.
Brahma Muhurta symbolizes soul rebirth, akin to the cosmic egg (Brahmanda) hatching at dawn, as in Rig Veda 1.113's Ushas invocation dissolving tamas (ignorance) for prana infusion and ajna chakra (third-eye) awakening. Among the Ray 114 chakras many subtler cosmic chakras are activated in this time. Tantric texts view it as activating muladhara-to-sahasrara axis for moksha (liberation), channeling prana beyond ego toward universal oneness.
Ashtanga Hridaya (Ayurveda scripture)
In Ayurveda, Ashtanga Hridaya Sutrasthana 2.1 clearly mentions:
“Brahme Muhurte uttishthayet, swastho rakshartham ayushah.”
"One should wake up in Brahma Muhurta for the protection and nourishment of health and life span."
Manu Smriti
Manu Smriti (Chapter 4, Verse 92) mentions that during Brahma Muhurta, one should engage in meditation on the self and recitation of sacred knowledge:
“Brahme Muhurte buddhiman, utthaya subhaseelavan |
Smaaran artham chintayet, dharmam chaiva tathaa sadaa ||”
"At Brahma Muhurta, the wise and virtuous person should rise and reflect on dharma (righteousness), truth, and self-knowledge."
Bhagavata Purana
The Srimad Bhagavata Purana (12.3.38) praises the early morning (before sunrise) for devotional practice:
“Uttishthata jagrata prapya varan nibodhata”
"Awake, arise, and worship the Supreme during the early dawn when sattva (purity) is predominant."
Scientific Perspective of Brahman Muhurta
From a scientific perspective, Brahman Muhurta aligns with the body’s circadian clock, a 24-hour internal rhythm governing sleep-wake cycles and hormone release. Research indicates this pre-dawn phase features elevated oxygen levels in the air, which mix efficiently with hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin, nourishing tissues and boosting immunity. Pollution is minimal, and the ionosphere’s state enhances cosmic energy absorption, potentially influencing pineal gland activity.
Studies link waking in this window to improved metabolic function and stress response. For instance, a review in the International Journal of Ayurveda and Herbal Medicine notes that it recharges the biological clock, maintaining rhythm, slows down aging process [1] and preventing disorders like insomnia or depression. Ayurvedic texts correlate it with Vata dosha dominance, promoting mental clarity and creativity.
Brahma Muhurta embodies an evolutionary value: synchronizing human physiology with cosmic cycles, mirroring Vedic cosmology's "creation" phase. Chronobiology research confirms this alignment enhances neuroplasticity, rewiring the brain for adaptive growth against modern stressors like artificial light. A 2023 review in Frontiers in Sleep shows pre-dawn waking modulates gene expression for longevity, reducing cellular aging by aligning mitochondrial rhythms with Earth's rotation—a biological echo of Brahma's creative force [13].
Psychologically, the tranquility reduces cortisol overload from daily stressors, fostering emotional stability. A 2023 study on early risers showed enhanced cognitive function and hormonal balance. In Buddhism, a similar concept exists, though less emphasized, highlighting cross-cultural recognition of pre-dawn benefits.
Practices during Brahman Muhurta, such as Surya Namaskar or silent contemplation, amplify these effects.
Brahman Muhurta and the Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is described as the “Seat of the Soul”, and it is located in the center of the brain. When pineal secretions peak, enhancing perception and integrating this into routines can manifest desires. Brahman Muhurta is the time to align your intentions with the universal energies and manifest your dreams.
Studies have shown [8] that the pineal gland's main secretion, melatonin, peaks in the middle of the night, around 3 to 4 a.m., with low levels during the day due to light suppression. This nightly peak serves to signal the body's circadian rhythm to enter its nocturnal phase and induce sleep. Age influences melatonin production, with levels peaking in early childhood and declining with age, which is thought to contribute to age-related sleep disturbances.
The Science of the First Sun Ray
The first ray of sunlight at dawn is a symphony of wavelengths, distinct from midday light due to atmospheric filtering. As the sun crests the horizon, its rays travel through denser air, scattering shorter blue wavelengths and allowing longer red and infrared ones to dominate. This “red light therapy” naturally penetrates skin, exciting cellular mitochondria and boosting energy production.
Physiologically, this exposure resets the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the brain’s master clock, synchronizing peripheral clocks in organs. It advances circadian phases, promoting earlier sleep onset and improved quality. Vitamin D synthesis begins, crucial for bone health, immunity, and mood regulation. UVB rays stimulate beta-endorphin release, akin to a natural opioid, enhancing well-being.
Research from the Huberman Lab underscores morning light’s role in elevating cortisol for alertness while curbing melatonin. A study in Translational Psychiatry found timed light exposure modulates brain circuits, alleviating mood disorders. Bright light exposure evoked the highest cortisol levels when compared to dim white, red, and blue light [9]. Infrared components aid wound healing and reduce inflammation [10].
In relation to Brahman Muhurta, the transition into dawn light amplifies these benefits. Pre-dawn practices prepare the body, making the first ray’s impact more profound. For example, viewing sunrise improves eyesight by rejuvenating retinal cells. Epidemiological data link low morning light to higher depression rates, emphasizing its preventive role.
Cardiovascularly, it lowers blood pressure and supports weight management by regulating metabolism. In Ayurveda, this aligns with solar prana invigorating the system. Practical advice: 10-30 minutes of exposure, ideally outdoors, yields optimal results.
Hormones and Neurotransmitters in Brahman Muhurta
The pre-dawn Brahman Muhurta and ensuing first light profoundly influence hormonal and neurotransmitter cascades, governed by the circadian system. Melatonin, produced by the pineal gland, peaks at night but wanes with dawn’s approach, facilitated by SCN signals. During Brahman Muhurta, melatonin levels naturally decline, preparing for wakefulness.
Cortisol, the stress hormone, surges in the cortisol awakening response (CAR), peaking 30-45 minutes post-waking. Waking in Brahman Muhurta aligns this with natural light, enhancing metabolism and focus without excess stress. A recent study in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences notes elevated cortisol during this time aids stress adaptation [11][12].
Serotonin, a neurotransmitter precursor to melatonin, rises with morning light exposure, improving mood and appetite regulation. Research shows light modulates serotonin availability, combating seasonal affective disorder. In Brahman Muhurta, practices like meditation boost serotonin via neurotransmitter modulation.
Dopamine, linked to motivation, is enhanced by dawn light, as per neuroscientific findings. This creates a “feel-good” loop, with routines increasing satisfaction. Estrogen and other sex hormones may also benefit, with light influencing reproductive rhythms.
Scientific studies, like one in Frontiers in Neuroscience, affirm light’s role in advancing rhythms and reducing mood disruptions [3]. Dim light at night disrupts this, but Brahman Muhurta’s darkness preserves melatonin integrity. A clinical trial on anxiety patients found Brahma Muhurta waking improved symptoms via hormonal balance.
Oxygen-rich air during this time supports neurotransmitter synthesis, as oxyhemoglobin aids brain function. Disruptions, like night shifts, elevate risks of metabolic issues. Integrating light therapy mimics these benefits.
Early Morning Brahman Muhurta Dream Patterns
Dreams in early morning, particularly during Brahman Muhurta, blend subconscious processing with cultural symbolism. Sleep cycles progress from NREM to REM, with REM dominating latter stages—often aligning with pre-dawn hours. Vivid dreams occur here, involving memory consolidation and emotional regulation.
In Hinduism, dreams during Brahman Muhurta are auspicious, potentially prophetic or insightful, as consciousness dwells in the throat chakra during dreams. Good dreams are believed to manifest, tied to Brahma’s creative energy. Scientifically, REM facilitates creativity and problem-solving.
Waking during this time interrupts REM, allowing dream recall and integration into waking awareness. Studies suggest stress hormones influence dream content, with serene Brahman Muhurta potentially yielding positive themes. Neurobiologically, REM hypothesizes wake-up preparation.
Cultural views see these dreams as divine messages, enhancing spiritual growth. Modern research links dream patterns to circadian disruptions, emphasizing natural alignment.
Benefits of Brahma Muhurta
Brahma Muhurta, the sacred pre-dawn period, is considered the most auspicious time for self-development, meditation, and spiritual growth. Rising during this time aligns the body and mind with the natural rhythms of the universe, fostering inner balance and clarity.
On a practical level, the stillness of the early morning helps improve concentration, memory, and creativity. It is regarded as the ideal time for study, yoga, and reflection because the mind is calm and free from worldly distractions. Breathing the fresh, oxygen-rich air at this time enhances vitality, immunity, and overall well-being.
Spiritually, Brahma Muhurta is said to open a direct pathway to higher consciousness. The subtle energies present in this period make meditation deeper, prayers more effective, and intentions more powerful. Many traditions believe that practices done during this time accumulate greater merit and have long-lasting effects on personal growth.
Thus, Brahma Muhurta benefits both the physical and the spiritual dimensions of life, offering a holistic foundation for health, wisdom, and inner peace.
Brahma Muhurta, RAS, and Manifestation
The power of Brahma Muhurta can be better understood when viewed through the lens of modern neuroscience, particularly the functioning of the Reticular Activating System (RAS). The RAS is a network of neurons in the brainstem that filters sensory information and determines what we notice, focus on, and act upon. In essence, it helps us align our attention with our goals and intentions.
During Brahma Muhurta—the pre-dawn period when the mind is naturally calm and alert—the RAS is more receptive to new programming. Thoughts, affirmations, and visualizations practiced at this time are more likely to be imprinted deeply into the subconscious. This is why many traditions emphasize using Brahma Muhurta for meditation, mantra chanting, and setting intentions.
From the perspective of manifestation, the stillness of the early morning allows individuals to consciously direct their mental focus. By combining spiritual practices with intentional visualization, one can activate the RAS to filter experiences and opportunities that align with desired outcomes. In this way, the wisdom of ancient seers harmonizes with modern psychology, showing that Brahma Muhurta is an optimal time to manifest health, prosperity, creativity, and spiritual awakening.
Thus, Brahma Muhurta is not only a sacred window for spiritual growth but also a scientifically favorable time to harness the mind’s filtering system for manifestation and life transformation.
Who Should Avoid Brahma Muhurta
Although Brahma Muhurta is highly beneficial, there are certain groups of people for whom this practice may not be suitable. Caution is advised in the following cases:
- People with serious illness or weak immunity – Rest and recovery take priority over early rising.
- Children and teenagers – Their growing bodies require more sleep for healthy development.
- Elderly individuals – Those with fragile health or sleep difficulties should avoid forcing early rising.
- Night-shift workers – Disturbing natural sleep cycles may cause fatigue and health issues.
- Those with chronic sleep deprivation – Proper rest is essential before attempting Brahma Muhurta practices.
- People in harsh climates – Extremely cold or damp conditions may be harmful during pre-dawn hours.
- Individuals with respiratory issues – Exposure to cold morning air can aggravate asthma or related conditions.
- Those in deep emotional distress – Excessive grief, anxiety, or agitation may prevent reaping the calming benefits of this practice.
In such cases, it is wiser to focus first on building balanced sleep, stable health, and emotional grounding before adopting Brahma Muhurta practices.
How Beginners Can Safely Start Practicing Brahma Muhurta
For those new to the practice, it is important to approach Brahma Muhurta gradually and with care. Instead of forcing sudden lifestyle changes, small adjustments can make the transition smoother and healthier. Below are some guidelines for safely beginning:
- Adjust sleep schedule gradually – Go to bed 15–20 minutes earlier each night until you naturally wake closer to Brahma Muhurta.
- Prioritize quality sleep – Ensure at least 6–8 hours of rest; do not compromise on sleep to rise early.
- Start with shorter sessions – Begin with 10–15 minutes of meditation, chanting, or pranayama, and slowly increase the duration.
- Keep the body warm – In cold climates, practice indoors or cover yourself with a shawl to prevent strain.
- Listen to your body – If you feel weak, overly tired, or unwell, allow yourself more rest and resume gently.
- Set gentle intentions – Use affirmations, gratitude journaling, or visualization to engage the mind positively during this sacred time.
- Create a peaceful environment – Reduce distractions by keeping the practice space clean, quiet, and well-ventilated.
- Seek guidance if needed – Consulting a teacher, mentor, or health professional ensures that your practice supports both body and spirit.
By starting gradually and respecting personal limits, beginners can experience the harmony and transformative energy of Brahma Muhurta without strain. Over time, the body adapts, and this sacred practice becomes a natural and joyful part of daily life.
Top 5 Mantras for Brahma Muhurta
Brahma Muhurta is the time for deep meditation not for loud mantra chanting. However, silent or softly internalized mantra recitation during this sacred time enhances concentration, purifies the mind, and aligns one with higher consciousness. The following five mantras are especially recommended, as they carry both spiritual power and universal resonance:
- Gayatri Mantra
Known as the mother of the Vedas, the Gayatri Mantra awakens wisdom, clarity, and divine illumination. It is considered one of the most auspicious chants for early morning practice. - Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra
A powerful Vedic mantra dedicated to Lord Shiva, it promotes healing, strength, and protection from fear. Ideal for cultivating courage and resilience at dawn. - Om (Pranava Mantra)
Chanting “Om” harmonizes breath, mind, and spirit. It resonates with cosmic vibrations, making it a perfect mantra for entering meditation during Brahma Muhurta. - So-Ham Mantra
A natural mantra linked with the breath: “So” (inhale) and “Ham” (exhale). It cultivates mindfulness, inner calm, and a sense of unity with the universe. - Asatoma Sad Gamaya Mantra : ॐ असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय ।
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥ Meaning: (Lead me from the unreal to the real, From darkness to light, From mortality to immortality.) - Vishnu Sahasranama (select verses)
Reciting even a few verses from the thousand names of Lord Vishnu generates positivity, devotion, and mental clarity. It is recommended for householders and seekers alike.
Chanting these mantras with sincerity during Brahma Muhurta not only elevates spiritual practice but also brings mental peace, health, and harmony into daily life.
Not for Everyone: Precautions and Limitations
While Brahma Muhurta is praised in both Vedic wisdom and modern wellness discussions, it is important to note that this sacred period is not suitable for everyone in all circumstances. The benefits of rising during this time depend on an individual’s health, lifestyle, and environment.
For people who are ill, very young, elderly, or those recovering from medical conditions, waking up at such an early hour may cause more strain than benefit. In Ayurveda, it is suggested that adequate rest and proper sleep are essential for healing; thus, forcing oneself to rise at Brahma Muhurta without sufficient rest may weaken immunity and create imbalance. Similarly, those who work night shifts or have irregular sleep cycles should first establish healthy rest patterns before attempting to practice early-morning routines.
Another limitation is the climate and geography. In very cold regions or during harsh winters, waking in the dark pre-dawn hours can be stressful for the body. Likewise, individuals with certain respiratory conditions may need to avoid exposure to cold, damp morning air. Spiritually, it is also advised that one should not engage in Brahma Muhurta practices if the mind is disturbed by excessive fear, grief, or agitation, as this may amplify restlessness rather than calmness.
In summary, Brahma Muhurta is most beneficial when practiced with wisdom, balance, and self-awareness. It is a powerful tool for health and spiritual growth, but not a rigid rule for everyone. Listening to one’s body, respecting personal circumstances, and seeking guidance from health professionals or spiritual mentors ensures that the practice is safe and supportive rather than harmful.
Conclusion: The Balanced Wisdom of Brahma Muhurta
Brahma Muhurta, the auspicious period before sunrise, is more than just an ancient prescription—it is a meeting point of science, spirituality, and personal transformation. Modern research validates what sages intuited thousands of years ago: the pre-dawn hours synchronize with our circadian rhythms, calm the nervous system, and prepare the mind for focus, creativity, and inner peace. Spiritually, it is considered the time when subtle energies are most supportive for meditation, prayer, and self-realization.
The connection between Brahma Muhurta and the Reticular Activating System (RAS) reveals how affirmations, visualizations, and meditation practiced at this time imprint deeply into the subconscious, making it a powerful period for manifestation. When thoughts are aligned with higher intentions, the mind naturally begins to filter opportunities and experiences that bring those intentions into reality.
Yet, this practice is not a rigid rule for all. Health conditions, age, sleep patterns, and environment must be considered carefully. For some, forcing early rising can cause imbalance rather than benefit. Hence, Brahma Muhurta should be approached with wisdom, flexibility, and self-awareness. Beginners can ease into the practice gently, ensuring that health and rest are never compromised.
Ultimately, the true essence of Brahma Muhurta lies in balance—uniting body and mind with nature’s rhythm, blending scientific insight with spiritual depth, and harmonizing personal growth with universal consciousness. Whether for health, clarity, or awakening, Brahma Muhurta offers a timeless path toward wholeness when practiced with devotion and discernment.
References
- Anuradha, C. R. Yadav, B. P. Singh, and V. Prabhakaran, "Brahma Muhurta and Circadian Rhythms: A Gateway to Optimal Health," International Research Journal of Ayurveda and Yoga, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 27-31, 2025. DOI: 10.48165/IRJAY.2025.80606.
- R. Gupta, O. Shukla, V. Shrivastava, and P. Acharya, "A Decent Science Behind the Brahma Muhurta," International Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 3005-3009, 2017. DOI: 10.18535/ijahm/v7i6.14.
- T. A. Bedrosian and R. J. Nelson, "Timing of light exposure affects mood and brain circuits," Translational Psychiatry, vol. 7, no. 1, p. e1017, 2017. DOI: 10.1038/tp.2016.262.
- M. Premkumar, T. Sable, D. Dhanwal, and R. Dewan, "Circadian Levels of Serum Melatonin and Cortisol in relation to Changes in Mood, Sleep, and Neurocognitive Performance, Spanning a Year of Residence in Antarctica," Neuroscience Journal, vol. 2013, p. 254090, 2013. DOI: 10.1155/2013/254090.
- W. R. Klemm, "Why Does Rem Sleep Occur? A Wake-Up Hypothesis," Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, vol. 5, p. 73, 2011. DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2011.00073.
- F. Siclari, G. Bernardi, J. Cataldi, and G. Tononi, "Dreaming in NREM Sleep: A High-Density EEG Study of Slow Waves and Spindles," Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 38, no. 43, pp. 9175-9185, 2018. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0855-18.2018.
- R. D. Cartwright, L. M. Diaz, and E. Wick, "Role of REM sleep and dream affect in overnight mood regulation: a study of normal volunteers," Psychiatry Research, vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 1-8, 1998. DOI: 10.1016/S0165-1781(98)00089-4.
- Arendt J, Aulinas A. Physiology of the Pineal Gland and Melatonin. [Updated 2022 Oct 30]. In: Feingold KR, Ahmed SF, Anawalt B, et al., editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK550972/
- Petrowski, K., Buehrer, S., Niedling, M., & Schmalbach, B. (2021). The effects of light exposure on the cortisol stress response in human males. Stress (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 24(1), 29–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2020.1741543.
- Qin, B., Fu, S. J., Xu, X. F., Yang, J. J., Wang, Y., Wang, L. N., & Wong, V. K. W. (2024). Far-infrared radiation and its therapeutic parameters: A superior alternative for future regenerative medicine?. Pharmacological research, 208, 107349.
- Andreadi, A., Andreadi, S., Todaro, F., Ippoliti, L., Bellia, A., Magrini, A., Chrousos, G. P., & Lauro, D. (2025). Modified Cortisol Circadian Rhythm: The Hidden Toll of Night-Shift Work. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26(5), 2090. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms26052090.
- Hannibal, K. E., & Bishop, M. D. (2014). Chronic stress, cortisol dysfunction, and pain: a psychoneuroendocrine rationale for stress management in pain rehabilitation. Physical therapy, 94(12), 1816–1825. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20130597.
- Morin, R., Forest, G., & Imbeault, P. (2025). Circadian rhythms revealed: unraveling the genetic, physiological, and behavioral tapestry of the human biological clock and rhythms. Frontiers in Sleep, 4, 1544945.
- Murthy, K.R.S. (1991). Ashtanga Hridaya Sutrasthana. Chaukhamba Orientalia (authentic Ayurvedic translation).
- Gita Press (1950). Srimad Bhagavata Purana (12.3.38). Gorakhpur: Gita Press (standard edition).
- Buhler, G. (1886). Manu Smriti (Ch. 4, V. 92). Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 25. Oxford University Press.
- Griffith, R.T.H. (1896). Rig Veda (1.113). Public domain scholarly translation.
- Ray, Amit. "Brahma Muhurta: Scientific Benefits and Spiritual Significance." Compassionate AI, 3.9 (2025): 6-8. https://amitray.com/brahman-muhurta-science-and-spirituality/.
